Irish Battalion in Mexican-American War

Men of the San Patricio Battalion

 Translation: "In memory of the Irish Soldiers of the heroic battalion of San Patricio Maritres that gave their life for the Mexican cause during the unjust North American invasion of 1847." (names) "With gratitude from Mexico to the 112 years of your sacrifice. Sept 1955

The Saint Patrick’s Battalion (San Patricios) was a group of 700+ mostly Irish immigrant soldiers who defected from the U.S. Army to fight for Mexico in the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). Driven by nativism, anti-Catholic sentiment, and better pay, they fought fiercely but were captured at the Battle of Churubusco; 50 were executed by hanging in September 1847, making it the largest mass execution in U.S. history. These men were hung in three different locations. The courts-martial were held in Mexico shortly after capture in Tacubaya and San Ángel and during the Battle of Chapultepec. The hangings were held from 10 - 13 Sep 1847

Seventy-two to eighty-five prisoners were court-martialed. Some were considered not-guilty. Fifty were hanged. Those executed below agree with the plaque above. are listed were to include those sentenced to death.

The 1847 court martial records can be found: 

• National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), Record Group 153.
  
• Be sure to check the Regular Army muster rolls for 1846–1847

Charlotte. Newspapers 1845

Researchers can reconstruct the events from:

• court-martial summaries
• military orders
• correspondence
• newspaper accounts
• Mexican archival sources

There are also records in the: 

• Mexican archives (Archivo General de la Nación)
• Published trial summaries in military histories
• Chapultepec campaign records

Why This Post? Shameless Plug

a3Gen Publishing is readying the historical and genealogical research guidebook by Kathleen Brandt of TracingAncestors.org. Volume I, The Early Wars, is the first relief of Behind the Uniform: Every soldier has a story.

We have mentioned its upcoming release on the Hittin' the Bricks with Kathleen podcast. This guidebook covers not only how and where to research your ancestral veterans, but also facts proven using case studies and supporting documents. So much was missing from our History classes.

Volume I of Behind the Uniform: Every soldier has a story covers the French and Indian War to the Civil War (Union and Confederates).

Who were the Irishmen of the San Patricio Battalion?

The San Patricio Battalion was a group of Irish immigrant conscripts who deserted the U.S. Army in 1846 to fight on the Mexican side in the U.S. Mexican War (1846-1848). Here is a historical review of the Irish of St. Patrick's Battalion that explains why these Irishmen deserted the American side to join and serve with their Mexican "Catholic brothers."

The Fraternalist, Missouri Valley Independent, 1 Oct 1955. St. Joseph, MO

A popular novel by Carl Kreuger, "Saint Patrick's Battalion" may also be of interest: 

The Solano-Napa News Chronicle, 19 Feb 1962, pg. 10

More References:

• The San Patricios: the Irish Heroes of Mexico
• The San Patricio Battalion: Irish and German Deserters in the Mexican-American War
• 30 HANGED AND 11 BRANDED, The Story of the San Patricio Battalion, Tom Mahoney 

Mexicans Became USA Citizens

Mexico had abolished slavery by 1829, and this war was viewed as an attempt by the U.S. to reintroduce slavery on "free" Mexican soil. It did succeed in expanding slave land by way of the annexation of Texas.

Brainerd Dispatch, 31 Jul 2018, pg. 6

Approximately 80,000 to 100,000 Mexican citizens (California and New Mexico) became "free persons" under U.S. law. This was not extended to enslaved American persons.

Embarrassment: Swept Under the Rug

U.S. Grant on the Mexican War: 
"I was bitterly opposed to the measure, and to this day regard the war, which resulted, as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation."

“With a soldier, the flag is paramount . . . I know the struggle with my conscience during the Mexican War. I have never altogether forgiven myself for going into that. I had very strong opinions on the subject. I do not think there was ever a more wicked war than that waged by the United States on Mexico. I thought so at the time, when I was a youngster, only I had not moral courage enough to resign. I had taken an oath to serve eight years, unless sooner discharged, and I considered my supreme duty was to my flag. I had a horror of the Mexican War, and I have always believed that it was on our part most unjust.

This War ushered in the Civil War. 

Pension Movement Suppressed: Records Preserved

 Ex-Slave Pension Mailbag Question
 "Is this accurate? Was the Ex-Slave Pension Movement considered a form of reparations?"

Answer:
This post could be called Beyond 1870: How the Ex-Slave Pension Movement Can Unlock Your Family History

Long before modern discussions of reparations, formerly enslaved Americans organized a national movement seeking federal pensions for unpaid labor under slavery. Through the National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty and Pension Association, led by Callie House and Isaiah H. Dickerson,  thousands petitioned Congress for compensation. Their proposal, often called the “Freedmen’s Pension Bill,” sought pensions modeled after Civil War veteran benefits.

Today, historians widely regard this as the first large-scale reparations movement led by African Americans. Although it has been mistakenly claimed that the government proved fraud. In actuality, the federal government suppressed the movement, denied the pensions, and prosecuted its leaders.

Callie House did not give up. However, the organization eventually filed a class-action lawsuit in 1915 (Johnson v. McAdoo) seeking compensation from federal cotton tax revenues as reparations. This case is now recognized as the first documented Black federal reparations litigation

For the Genealogists
The Freedmen’s Pension Bill, Callie House, and the Bureau of Pensions Records name enslaved ancestors. The Ex-Slave Pension Movement (1890–1920) created valuable genealogical records in the National Archives RG 15 (M2110).

This association sought:

• Federal pensions for formerly enslaved people

• Modeled after Civil War Union veteran pensions

• Compensation for unpaid labor under slavery

• Relief for aging formerly enslaved individuals

The membership applications and correspondence sometimes include:

• Names of former enslavers
• Birth estimates before emancipation
• Plantation locations
• Family members
• Community affiliations

For descendants researching ancestors born before 1865, these files can provide rare late-life testimony from the formerly enslaved themselves.

These records survive in the National Archives (RG 15, Bureau of Pensions) and are partially digitized. For the curious historian, be sure to check out the following digitized correspondence: 

All Washington D.C., Pension Correspondence and Case Files of Formerly Enslaved People, 1892-1922 results for [Callie] House.

Black history is not just about suffering; it is also about organized advocacy, political strategy, and early justice movements.

What was the Freedmen’s Pension Bill?
The Freedmen’s Pension Bill was led by a Nebraskan white newspaper editor but was championed by the National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty and Pension Association (MRB&PA). It is often referred to as "the first mass reparations movement led by African Americans. But it was not officially framed by Congress as “reparations” in legislative language. 

The goal was to obtain pensions for former slaves from the Federal government as compensation and reparations for unpaid labor and suffering. Congress never adopted it as a formal reparations policy. These records are held at the federal level in the “Bureau of Pensions, Records of the Department of Veterans Affairs.” 

Learn More: 

• Vaughan’s “Freedmen’s pension bill.”
• Full Article No Pensions for Ex-Slaves by Miranda Booker Perry. Printed in the Prologue Magazine, National Archives
• Book: My Face is Black is True: Callie House and the Struggle for Ex-Slave Reparations.

Be Historically Correct  

Kathleen Brandt
a3genealogy@gmail.com

The Quantum Leap of Genealogy Research Interest

The Quantum Leap of Genealogy, Genealogy Blood Quantum, and more
(Who's going to tell John, of Hittin' the Bricks with Kathleen genealogy podcast?)

Chicago Tribune Archive, 4 Oct 1996

Hawaii Tribune-Herald, Jan 20, 1988 ·Page 5

3 Record Sets: Puerto Rican Enslaved Ancestors

Registro Central de Esclavos, 1872

Have You Researched Your Puerto Rican Enslaved Persons?

Did You Know?
Enslaved ancestors in Puerto Rico can be traced. 

Many genealogists are unaware that enslaved people in Puerto Rico can be traced by name using Spanish colonial records created in the years leading up to abolition. To begin this research, it is essential to understand three interconnected record sets, created at different stages of the abolition process.

Three Key Record Sets for Researching Enslaved People in Puerto Rico

1. Cédulas de esclavos

•  Individual identity documents
•  Issued before the abolition-era enumeration
•  Often include physical descriptions, ownership, residence, and sometimes parentage

2. Empadronamiento General de Esclavos

• Local enumeration of enslaved people
• Conducted primarily circa 1871–1872, with earlier local enumerations (including 1867)
• Organized by jurisdiction, plantation, or household

3. Registro Central de Esclavos (1872)

• Centralized compilation of enumeration data
• Used for emancipation administration and compensation
• Captures enslaved people at the edge of freedom

These records are not redundant; they work together.

The Registro Central de Esclavos (1872)
For genealogists researching enslaved ancestors in Puerto Rico, the Registro Central de Esclavos (Central Registry of Slaves), created in 1872, is one of the most important, and most overlooked, record sets documenting slavery on the island just before slavery was abolition.

This registry was compiled one year before slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico, making it a rare snapshot of enslaved individuals, their owners, and family relationships at the very edge of freedom.

When Did Slavery End in Puerto Rico?
Slavery in Puerto Rico officially ended on March 22, 1873, when the Spanish Cortes passed the Abolition of Slavery Act for Puerto Rico.

However, emancipation was conditional:

• Formerly enslaved people were required to work for their former enslavers for three additional years
• Or purchase their freedom through a state-regulated compensation system
• The system functioned more like indentured labor than true freedom

Important clarification:
The Moret Law (1870) did not abolish slavery outright. Instead, it granted limited freedom to:

• Children born to enslaved mothers after 1868
• Enslaved people over age 60
• Enslaved people who served the Spanish state

True, unconditional emancipation, without forced labor or compensation, came only after these transitional requirements expired.

Why the 1872 Registry Matters
The Registro Central de Esclavos was created as part of Spain’s effort to inventory enslaved people before emancipation. It was used primarily to manage compensation claims by slaveholders.

For genealogists, this registry is invaluable because it may include:

• Full name of the enslaved individual
• Town or municipality
• Place of birth (often Africa, the Caribbean, or Puerto Rico)
• Name of the enslaver
• Legal status
• Age, sex, and physical description
• Family relationships (parents, spouses, children)
• Notations made as emancipation approached

In many cases, this may be the only surviving document that names an enslaved ancestor before freedom.

Locating These Records
Records of the Spanish Colonial Government of Puerto Rico, including the Registro Central de Esclavos (1872), are preserved as part of:

• Puerto Rico (Territory under Spanish occupation, 1509-1898
• Office of the Governor of Puerto Rico

These records are held by the National Archives and Records Administration and are also accessible in part through FamilySearch.org, Puerto Rico Slave Registers, 1859–1880

Although Puerto Rico became a U.S. territory in 1898, Spanish-era records remained intact and were later incorporated into U.S. archival custody.

Note: These records are not fully digitized. Many are poorly indexed

Reading the 1872 Registry
The 1872 registry page shown above demonstrates the bureaucratic language of slavery:

• Individuals are listed as property, yet paradoxically described in deeply human terms:
• family, origin, and physical traits
• Columns reflect ownership and legal control rather than personhood
• Marginal notes may reveal changes in status as emancipation approached

This tension makes the registry both painful and powerful to work with.

The Registro Central de Esclavos (1872) is not just a list; it is a threshold document, capturing lives in the final moments before a legal transformation that was incomplete, conditional, and deeply unequal. For descendants, it can be the first moment an ancestor appears by name. 

Related Record Set: Empadronamiento General de Esclavos

Prior to the creation of the 1872 Registro Central de Esclavos (centralizaed registry), Spanish colonial authorities conducted a general enumeration of enslaved people known as the Empadronamiento General de Esclavos. This census-like record documented enslaved individuals by jurisdiction, plantation, and household. It often lists family relationships and physical descriptions.
Some surviving examples date to 1867, while others reflect the 1871–1872 enumeration phase immediately preceding abolition.

These census-like records often document enslaved individuals by:

• Jurisdiction
• Plantation or household
• Family relationships
• Physical descriptions

Why the New York Public Library Has These Records 
The New York Public Library collected Spanish colonial records as part of its global legal, colonial, and abolition-era documentation efforts, especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 
This mirrors the record collections of:

• Cuban slavery records in Boston
• Brazilian manumission records in Paris
• Haitian colonial records in Spain and France

Digitized examples of the Empadronamiento General de Esclavos (1867) are preserved in the NYPL collections and can provide critical pre-abolition context, particularly when used alongside the 1872 registry.

Puerto Rican descendants may also want to scour the NYPL Digital Collections, including holdings at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, for registered slave records.

Case Example: Empadronamiento / Cédula Record
Slave Registry: Lucía, described as mulata and creciendo (still growing), was enslaved by Teodosio González, a resident of Utuado, Barrio de Caguana, Arecibo. Although her father is not named, her mother was Juana de Frecia. 

This type of individual record, whether a cédula or local empadronamiento entry, provides the personal detail that later feeds into the centralized 1872 registry.

Cédula Record

Why Genealogists Cédulas and the 1872 Registro Central de Esclavos?

These records work together.

• Cédulas tell us who someone was
• The 1872 Registro Central de Esclavos tells us where they stood when slavery ended

Together, they allow families to be traced across emancipation.

5 Research Pro Tips
Researching enslaved ancestors in Puerto Rico is complex but possible.
If you are researching Afro-Puerto Rican or enslaved ancestors:

1. Search pre-1873 church records alongside the registry
2. Track enslavers forward into 1873–1880 labor contracts
3. Look for surname adoption patterns after emancipation
4. Pair registry entries with Spanish civil records and municipal censuses
5. Do not assume freedom in 1873 meant independence; many families remained tied to former owners for years

This research reminds us that emancipation was not a single date, but a long, contested process.

6 RESEARCH TIPS: FRENCH & INDIAN WAR

If you’ve hit a brick wall before 1776, this conversation is for you.
Before asking who your ancestor fought for, ask what shaped their life first. For many families, the answer lies in the French & Indian War.

The French & Indian War (1754–1763) shaped migration, land ownership, military experience, and family survival long before independence. Ignoring it can leave entire chapters of your ancestor’s life unexplored.

WHY THIS WAR MATTERS FOR GENEALOGISTS

This conflict occurred before the United States existed. As a result, it produced no federal pensions, no centralized service files, and no standardized documentation.

Those fragments explain:

• sudden migrations into frontier regions

• unexplained land ownership

• gaps in tax, church, or court records

• later Revolutionary War service

For genealogists, this war is not optional context; it is foundational.

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS

“My ancestor wasn’t old enough.”
If your ancestor served in the Revolution, they were often shaped by this earlier war.

“There are no records.”
There are records, just not where most people look.

“It only involved soldiers.”
The war affected civilians, families, Native nations, and enslaved people alike.

6 RECORD SETS THAT CAN BE LOCATED:

Muster Rolls

1. Colonial Muster rolls
2. Payroll  (see below)
3. Council Records
4. Orderly books
5. Diaries, Officers
6. Pension Records, which may be found in Revolutionary records or local repositories

PLACES TO BEGIN WITHOUT BECOMING OVERWHELMED

You don’t need to become a military historian to research this war effectively. However, start by adjusting your expectations:

• Look beyond traditional “military records”

• Expand timelines backward

• Read later records carefullyespecially pension narratives

• Consider land and migration as consequences of service

Note: Recognize service when it isn’t labeled.

1. State Archives & Libraries (i.e. MA State Archives)

2. Library of Congress: Letters, George Washignton Papers, etc.

3. FamilySearch: keyword "French and Indian War" 

4.  Historical and Genealogical Societies: family genealogies, records and community compilations

The key is learning how to recognize service when it isn’t labeled.

AFRICAN AMERICANS  AND INDENTURED SERVANTS ALSO SERVED 

"Father or Master," Massachusetts

WHAT THIS MEANS FOR YOUR RESEARCH

The French & Indian War explains why many ancestors seem to appear “out of nowhere.”
It accounts for silence, movement, and transformation in colonial families.

Once you understand this war, Revolutionary War research becomes clearer, not harder.

This topic is explored further in the latest episode of Hittin' the Bricks with Kathleen, where we discuss:

• why this war is overlooked

• where evidence hides

• how genealogists can reset expectations

2026 Happy New Year

 

To our readers, listeners, donors, and sponsors, thank you for walking beside us. Every story shared, every brick removed, and every life honored happens because you believe history matters.
Here’s to another year of blogposts, voices, ancestors, and legacies remembered

If you've lost us be sure to subscribe and update the blog page for a3Genealogy. 

Note: We are now official partners with Tracing Ancestors (tracingancestors.org), a 501C3

Home of Hittin' the Bricks with Kathleen podcast 

 

5 Definite Reasons to Use School Records

School records follow our ancestors from as early as five years old. Sure we an see them in their first census but the information is limited. Name, age, parents, some or all of the siblings depending on the birth order. Early census also share their education level. But, census do not reveal the whole story, and we can't be sure the informant to the Census Taker was accurate. Except in 1940 Census, we aren't even sure who provided the information. 

Collaborating Data
Since genealogists use collaboration to uncover facts, and to uncover mistakes in records, I wonder why so few ferret out vital School Records.  These are primary records, contemporary records, that shares your ancestor from abt 5/6 years old to 18.  

1.  Need a birth date?

2.  Need parents' names and siblings?

1939 School Enrollment, Kemper MS. 

Put Norms Aside

All research is not clean. It's complicated and the researcher must think out of the box. Ask "would that be possible."  The answer is probably YES, regardless of the seemingly absurdity of the question.

3.  Need to Identify An Abandoned Child 

Was this abandoned child Helen, my mother?  That's what a client asked. He knew his mother was raised by the Cannon family, but no one knew her birth name until we turned to school records. These school records married with court records solved this mystery. 

Helen went to second grade using the Cannon surname. However, she was never legally adopted. 

Of course, the question then was "How did the Cannon's get Helen?"  Yes, we turned to the following

1) research on the children's orphanage/institution

2) research on the Cannon's

3) research on the court records and the judge's practices

Bracing Helen further, we uncovered her legal name when she registered earlier for Kindergarten while in a children's institution. 

4.  Need to Release A Historical "Untruth Assumption"
Sure, I could have just said a false assumption, but the assumption that all schools were segregated before Brown vs. Topeka is an argument I refuse to have anymore.  My entire paternal grandfather's family integrated schools in Kansas, as did my mother's family, as seen below in 1890.  Aunt Pearl, as known to the family, had perfect attendance in 1890, Coldwater, Kansas. And she kept all of her school records.

5.  Need to Prove African Americans Attended Non-HBCU Schools

This is just one more Untruth Assumption. It is assumed that since Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) were in America as early as 1837,  Cheyney University, PA , that black students were compelled to attend them.  Yet, extant records prove this assumption to be false.

African Americans were attending non-segragated schools and since at least 1799 when John Chavis is on record of attending Liberty Hall Academy in VA. Alexander Twilight, though, is the first African American to be awarded a bachelor's degree in 1823 - Middleburg College, VT. 
***Just a Name Dropping Note: Kathleen Brandt also took 9 hours toward her Master's Degree at Middleburg in the 1980's. 

Early emancipated African Americans may have been educated in free state schools. The Moseley children of Jackson, Mississippi, were emancipated by their white father William O. Moseley. They were sent to Ohio, a free state, to be privately educated and to attend Oberlin Prep School (1870-1872).

(Moseley family has been DNA and papertrail proven.)

School record research is your homework for this Holiday Season! 

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